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HOME Forword Selected sources |
LIFE IN CLASSICAL TIMES PEASANTS, PEDAGOGUES AND POLITICIANS Like us, the Greeks and Romans lived on farms, in villages or in cities, although most people lived in the countryside. They were governed by politicians, and the concept of democracy, was first formulated in ancient Greece. There were, however, periods when power was held by one, or a handful of men. Best known is Julius Caesar, the man who defied the Senate of Rome and ended the Republic, and his successor Caesar Augustus. The citizens of Athens and Rome were passionate about politics, and crowded public squares such as the Athenian Agora and the Forum Romanum, were often the scenes of lively discussions. In Athens, the Agora was surrounded by stoas where citizens could talk under shady porticos. Here philosophers held classes for the city’s children and youths. Among the most famous were Socrates (c 470-399 BC), Plato (c 428-348 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). In Rome, the Forum was crossed by the Via Sacra, where victorious generals paraded under magnificent painted arches on their return from successful campaigns. At the end of the Via Sacra, beneath Capitol Hill, lay the Curia, where important decrees were made, and the Rostra, the speakers’ platform. Lining the road were basilicas with colonnades where citizens met to gossip and discuss politics. These were also popular pursuits at the Roman baths, the thermae. The baths were large, and in most cases, public buildings. A visit to the bath was an important part of Roman life, not only to wash, but also as a way of passing time and socialising. From the written sources we know that people often went to the baths to people-watch, and the graffiti on the walls are often rude comments about other guests. ATHLETES, ACTORS, GLADIATORS AND CHARIOTEERS Sport was very important and people believed in the connection between a healthy body and a healthy mind. Sports such as wrestling and discus throwing, took place in arenas located at the gymnasia where young men went to exercise and compete. In Athens and Rome, as well as in all major cities of the Classical World, there were theatres where actors and actresses performed comedies and tragedies. The audiences were seated on ascending semi-circular rows around a centre stage. This ensured that the actor’s could be clearly heard throughout the theatre.
Illlustration: Johnny Kreutz © Museum of Cultural History Amphitheatres - the most famous of which was the Colosseum - were found in all larger Roman cities. Here gladiators fought each other and also against wild animals brought from all corners of the Empire. At the opening of the Colosseum in 80 AD, 9,000 animals were slaughtered for the amusement of the people. When the Emperor Trajan (AD 98-117) celebrated a victory over the Germans, 110 animals were killed each day over a period of 100 days, a total of 11 000 animals. The gladiators fought to survive. The only way to leave the arena alive was by winning. Those who succeeded were enormously popular, and can be compared to modern pop idols and football stars. Chariot racing, another hugely popular spectator sport, took place in specially-built stadiums. In Rome, chariot racing was closely linked to politics, and the various factions had their own chariots, marked with the party colours. Wealthy citizens with political ambitions often sponsored the chariots. HONOURING THE GODS The most important buildings in any ancient city were the temples, the sacred buildings where people worshiped their gods. The desire to please the gods was felt everywhere in ancient society and the gods were present in all parts of public life. Statues and altars were set at crossroads and in private houses as well as in temples. There were twelve main gods in the Greek pantheon. The Romans inherited the Greek gods and gave them Latin names.
Illlustration: Johnny Kreutz © Museum of Cultural History In addition to these twelve gods, there were various half-gods, heroes and mythological figures such as water nymphs, the half-horse-half-man centaurs, and the half-goat-half-man satyrs. The many myths about the gods can be compared to legends and fairytales, but they always had an edge and there was always a lesson to be learned. Myths told people about what would happen if they neglected the gods or did not obey them. Most classical myths deal with the relationship between gods and humans, and death is often major theme. In order to appease the gods, people made sacrifices at shrines and altars, and took part in religious festivals which were celebrated throughout the year. In both Greece and Rome politics and religion were interwoven and the festivals were often sponsored by rich patrons. In Greece, festivals were often connected with sporting events, such as the Olympic and the Panathenaic games. Theatrical performances and games were also part of these festivals, some of which lasted for several days. In Rome, the gods were celebrated at festivals held on special dates, and there were more red-letter days in the Roman calendar than in ours. Many of these festivals grew out of earlier traditions based on nature worship, such as offering gifts to mark the arrival of the different seasons. One of these, the feast of the fertility god Dionysus-Bacchus which took place in the spring, was especially wild and ecstatic. In addition to the fixed calendar of festivals, some emperors added new feasts and fairs suited to their tastes and budget. SENATORS AND SLAVES Rich Romans held dinner parties sometimes lasting all night, where huge amounts of food and wine were consumed in elegant dining rooms. Food and wine was imported from various parts of the Mediterranean. Wine and other liquids were transported by ship in large ceramic jars (amphora). People ate while in a reclining position on couches in the dining room or in the atrium. Musicians and dancers entertained the guests who wore expensive clothes, jewels and exotic perfume. While most people’s diet consisted mainly of bread, porridge or cabbage supplemented with meat or fish when possible, the food served at the banquets of the upper class was often extravagant, even by modern gourmet standards. Delicacies such as mussels and various cheeses were often imported from great distances. At the banquets, slaves served the food and attended to the guest’s needs. Life as a slave could range from being tolerable to miserable. Slaves who had special skills such as bakers, blacksmiths and artists were often appreciated for their usefulness and treated with consideration. Other slaves had to live with the farm animals and were given meagre portions of leftovers to eat. In Roman times, slaves could be set free by their masters, or they could try to save enough money to buy their freedom. Freed slaves could marry, have families and start their own business, but they would never be counted as freeborn Roman citizens. This would have to wait until the next generation. People’s status as freed slaves or freeborn citizens, was displayed in various ways, such as by the type of ring they wore. In death, a person’s status was inscribed on their grave stone. HER HUSNAND´S PROPERTY The differences between the sexes were profound. Men and women had different duties and rights, and these were reflected in the layout of ancient houses. Large parts of the house were reserved for female activities connected to running the house, while the male zone was in the more public areas near the entrance where the master could receive visitors. This reflects the belief that a woman’s place was in the home with the family, while the man was outgoing and engaged in society. The Greeks seem to have held to this social order more rigidly than the Romans. In Greece, a proper wife was not supposed to leave the house unless it was to take part in religious activities. A Roman wife, however, could move around quite freely although she had to keep her head covered. In both societies, a wife was considered to be her husband’s property and if she was caught committing adultery he had the right to kill her. One famous example of a woman who met such an end is Messalina, the wife of Emperor Claudius. She went as far as marrying another man while she was still married to the emperor. Children were known to be the result of sexual intercourse, but exactly how fertilisation took place was not fully understood. Monogamy was a way of ensuring controlled paternity. In Rome, however, adopted children had the same rights as biological offspring.
Illlustration: Johnny Kreutz © Museum of Cultural History Women from the upper levels of society were sometimes able to achieve a considerable degree of independence. This was especially true of women who realized that their marriages were fundamentally political alliances, and could exploit their economic importance. Other women, such as Nero’s mother Agrippina Minor, wielded influence through their children. Although strong and colourful women like Cleopatra have always attracted attention, life for the average woman in Greece and Rome was a perilous journey. Girls became mothers as young as twelve, and more women died during child-birth than men were killed in battle. SOLDIERS AND SAILORS The Romans had an army and a navy, and the Roman military was probably the best organised in the history of warfare. The army consisted of legions made up of Roman infantry, and auxiliary troops made up of non-Roman allies. A legion was normally accompanied by auxiliary troops, which were summoned when needed. There were around 4200 legions during the Republican period and 5500 in the time of the Empire. Each legion and cohort was given a name, such as Cohors III Alpinorum. The military success of Rome is often attributed to the efficiency of the legions. In addition to their far-reaching conquests, Roman soldiers were responsible for the construction of roads all over the Empire. The army was thus a sound investment, but an expensive one. The soldier’s themselves were not paid much, and military service could last for years. Soldiers often never returned to their place of origin, but as veterans, settled in the colonies where they were given land. By the end of the 2nd century AD, it was legal for soldiers to marry women in the provinces, and many of them settled and mixed with the local population. The greatest reason why soldiers never returned home was that so many died in military service. The many tombstones commemorating fallen soldiers attest to this. MARE NOSTRUM The Mediterranean Sea is of inestimable importance for our understanding of the world of Classical Antiquity. It was the sea that made it possible for armies to travel quickly and conquer vast areas, and it was the sea that enabled merchants to transport the vast array of goods between port cities.
Illlustration: Johnny Kreutz © Museum of Cultural History The Greeks colonised large parts of the Mediterranean, and its seaports supplied the mother city-states with goods and produce. For Rome, however, the Mediterranean was its very lifeline. Without grain from Sicily and North Africa, Rome could never have fed nearly a million inhabitants. Along with the goods from all corners of the world came a wealth of new ideas and impulses. Foreign merchants and slaves came with their traditions, religions and cultural traits. Soldiers returned from service abroad with new experiences, stories and outlooks. Many foreign deities found their way into Roman mythology. The various new cultural currents gradually changed and enriched Roman culture and produced a complexity which is mirrored in matters pertaining to death, such as burial customs. A WATERY GRAVE The Mediterranean was a busy sea and maritime traffic was intense. No matter how experienced the crew, sudden storms and other disasters caused frequent shipwrecks. Neptune (Gr. Poseidon), god of the seas, and Mercury (Gr. Hermes), protector of merchants, were worshipped in port cities in hope of protecting travellers from the perils of the sea and saving them from a restless watery grave.
Illlustration: Johnny Kreutz © Museum of Cultural History Many written sources tell of life and death at sea, in peacetime as well as in war. The Greek poet Archilochos, writing in the 7th century BC, extols, “Let us hide the sad gifts which Poseidon brings.” (Frg. 53). The sad gifts are the corpses of the drowned. |
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